INVESTIGATING ISLAM

The Inimitable Qur’an?

A Historical Analysis of Islam’s Iʿjāz Doctrine

The doctrine of iʿjāz al-Qur’ān—the claim that the Qur’an is inimitable and thus must be divine—has long served as the centerpiece of Islamic apologetics. According to this view, no human being, no poet, no prophet, and no supernatural force can produce a text like the Qur’an. Therefore, it must be from God.

But what if this doctrine is not originally Qur’anic in nature? What if it is a later theological development, born not out of divine revelation, but out of polemical necessity?

In this post, we’ll examine the historical development of the iʿjāz doctrine—from its absence in early Islam, to its formulation in medieval theology, and finally, to its modern rebranding in the age of apologetics. Our goal is to assess whether the doctrine rests on solid evidence—or whether it was created to defend an already-assumed belief.

1. The Qur’an’s Own Challenge Verses: Ambiguous and Undefined

Islamic apologists often point to several verses that issue a literary “challenge” to humanity:

Qur’an 2:23 – “Then bring a surah like it.”
Qur’an 10:38 – “Bring a surah like it and call upon whoever you can besides God.”
Qur’an 17:88 – “Even if jinn and mankind gathered together, they could not produce the like of it.”

But these verses do not define what “like it” means. There is no explanation of criteria. No mention of rhythm, grammar, content, theology, prophecy, or rhetorical technique. This vagueness leaves room for post hoc theological elaboration.

Furthermore, these verses do not claim the Qur’an is inimitable because of linguistic uniqueness—they claim it is divine because no one can meet the challenge. That’s an important distinction.

Key point: The Qur’an issues a challenge—but the doctrine of iʿjāz, as later articulated, goes beyond the Qur’an itself.

2. Early Islam: No Developed Doctrine of Inimitability

a. No Evidence of Early Controversy Over Iʿjāz

The early Islamic community (7th–early 8th century) did not develop or systematically defend the concept of inimitability. We see no record in early biographies (sīrah), early Qur’anic exegesis, or the earliest hadith collections of the doctrine of iʿjāz being clearly taught or debated.

In fact, early Islamic tradition acknowledges that the Quraysh accused Muhammad of plagiarizing existing poetry and myths:

“We have heard this before. This is nothing but the fables of the ancients!” (Qur’an 8:31, 16:24, 68:15)
“This is nothing but poetry.” (Qur’an 21:5)

Rather than denying this by claiming a unique literary miracle, the Qur’an’s defense is simply that it is not poetry, and Muhammad is not a poet (Qur’an 36:69).

b. No Surviving Examples of the “Challenge” Being Refuted or Met

While Muslims often claim that no one ever met the Qur’anic challenge, there is no record of serious attempts from the 7th century—either by Jews, Christians, or Arabs—being preserved, analyzed, or debated. The absence of response may be due to lack of documentation, early Islamic censorship, or the reframing of the challenge in later theology.

3. The Theological Construction of Iʿjāz (8th–10th Centuries)

The doctrine of iʿjāz was developed post-Qur’an by early theologians (mutakallimūn) as part of their defense of Islam against Mu‘tazilite rationalism, Christian polemics, and Greek logic.

a. Al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 869) – First to Theorize Linguistic Superiority

In his works, al-Jāḥiẓ suggested that the Qur’an's eloquence was unsurpassable, reflecting divine origin. He tied its excellence to Arabic rhetoric and style but never provided concrete evidence that its language was objectively unique. His arguments leaned heavily on literary intuition, not logic.

b. Al-Bāqillānī (d. 1013) – Formalizes the Doctrine

Al-Bāqillānī is often called the father of iʿjāz theory. In his book I‘jāz al-Qur’ān, he explicitly formulates the doctrine as we know it today:

“The Qur’an is a miracle not merely because of its content, but because its form, style, and rhetorical power are beyond human capacity.”

But again, this is not a Qur’anic statement—it is a later theological claim, constructed long after Muhammad’s death. Al-Bāqillānī also struggled to define the standard by which inimitability could be measured.

4. The Role of Arabic Elitism in the Doctrine’s Growth

Many classical arguments for iʿjāz rely on a particular view of Arabic:

“Arabic is the best language, and the Qur’an is the best Arabic.”

This circular national-linguistic pride was weaponized theologically. It effectively asserted:

The Qur’an is divine because it’s perfect Arabic.
Perfect Arabic is defined by the Qur’an.

This argument both begs the question and excludes non-Arabs from verifying the claim. For centuries, non-Arab Muslims were expected to accept the Qur’an’s inimitability based on hearsay, not personal evaluation.

5. Rebranding Iʿjāz for Modern Apologetics

From the 20th century onward, iʿjāz has been reframed in new ways to appeal to a scientifically literate and globalized audience.

a. Scientific Iʿjāz

Popularized by figures like Maurice Bucaille, Zakir Naik, and Harun Yahya, this form claims the Qur’an contains scientific facts unknown in the 7th century, proving divine authorship.

Examples often cited:

Embryology in Qur’an 23:13–14
Big Bang in 21:30
Mountains as pegs in 78:6–7

But as shown in critical scholarship:

These verses are vague or metaphorical.
Much of this knowledge predated Islam in Greek, Indian, or Persian science.
These “miracles” are discovered after science already knows the facts.

Conclusion: Scientific iʿjāz is retroactive interpretation, not predictive revelation.

b. Emotional or Spiritual Iʿjāz

Some modern defenders argue that the Qur’an moves the heart in ways no other text can. But this is purely subjective—many find Shakespeare, Rumi, or the Bible emotionally transformative too.

6. Critical Evaluation: Is the Qur’an Inimitable?

Let’s test the iʿjāz doctrine using objective standards:

Criterion	Qur’anic Claim	Reality
Literary Uniqueness	Cannot be matched by any human text	Style matches pre-Islamic poetry and prose
Historical Challenge	No one met the challenge	No record of serious, preserved counterexamples
Clear Criteria	“Like it” is defined	No clear standard in Qur’an or tradition
Objective Evaluation	Universal recognition of superiority	Subject to cultural, linguistic, and religious bias
Independent Confirmation	Miracles or knowledge from outside sources	All claims are internal or retroactively interpreted

Conclusion: A Doctrine Built on Presumption, Not Proof

The doctrine of iʿjāz al-Qur’ān did not arise with Muhammad or the Qur’an—it was constructed over centuries by Muslim theologians trying to defend their scripture from critics.

It has evolved from:

A vague Qur’anic challenge
To a medieval theological construct
To a modern apologetic marketing tool

But at its core, iʿjāz remains circular:

“The Qur’an is from God because no one can imitate it. And no one can imitate it because it’s from God.”

In rational inquiry, no claim can verify itself. A book that declares its own perfection is not proven perfect by the declaration—it requires independent evidence, which Islam has yet to provide.

Invitation to Readers

If you believe this post misrepresents Islamic theology, Qur’anic linguistics, or the history of iʿjāz, please cite specific primary Islamic sources (not opinions or summaries) to show where and how the evidence contradicts this analysis.

We are not interested in assumptions—only in verifiable truths.